Kids Connected to Conservation and Culture

Mining

What is mining?

Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from earth.  Manganese, tantalum, cassiterite, copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminum ore), iron ore, gold, silver, and diamonds are just some examples of what is mined. 

Why mine?

Mining is a money making business.  Not only do mining companies prosper, but governments also make money from revenues.  Workers also receive income and benefits. 

What are the minerals and metals used for?

Minerals and metals are very valuable commodities.  For example, manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel.  It is also used to de-color glass (removing greenish hues), but in higher concentrations, it actually makes lavendar-colored glass.  Tantalum is used in cell phones, pagers, and lap-tops.  Cooper and tin are used to make pipes, cookware, etc.  And gold, silver, and diamonds are used to make jewelry. 

Large scale mining versus small scale mining:

• Large scale mining usually involves a company with many employees.  The company mines at one or two large sites and usually stays until the mineral or metal is completely excavated.  An example of a large scale mine is the Serra Pelada mine in Brazil which yielded 29,000 tons of gold from 1980 to 1986 and employed 50,000 workers (Kricher, 1997).
• Small scale mining usually involves a small group of nomadic men.  They travel together and look for sites which they think will yield gold or another valuable metal or mineral.  Small scale mining occurs in places such as Suriname, Guyana, Central Africa, and many other places around the world.  Some researchers believe that small scale mining is more harmful to the environment and causes more social problems than large scale mining.  This will become apparent later in the lesson. 

How does mining affect the environment?

Mining is generally very destructive to the environment.  It is one of the main causes of deforestation.  In order to mine, trees and vegetation are cleared and burned.  With the ground completely bare, large scale mining operations use huge bulldozers and excavators to extract the metals and minerals from the soil.  In order to amalgamate (cluster) the extractions, they use chemicals such as cyanide, mercury, or methylmercury.  These chemicals go through tailings (pipes) and are often discharged into rivers, streams, bays, and oceans.  This pollution contaminates all living organisms within the body of water and ultimately the people who depend on the fish for their main source of protein and their economic livelihood. 

Small scale mining is equally devastating to the environment, if not more.  Groups of 5-6 men migrate from one mining site to another in search of precious metals, usually gold.  There are two types of small scale mining: land dredging and river dredging:

• Land dredging involves miners using a generator to dig a large hole in the ground.  They use a high pressure hose to expose the gold-bearing layer of sand and clay.  The gold bearing slurry is pumped into a sluice box, which collects gold particles, while mine tailings flow into either an abandoned mining pit or adjacent forest.  When the mining pits fill with water from the tailings, they become stagnant water pools.  These pools create a breeding ground for mosquitoes and other water-born insects.  Malaria and other water-born diseases increase significantly whenever open pools of water are nearby. 
• River dredging involves moving along a river on a platform or boat.  The miners use a hydrolic suction hose and suction the gravel and mud as they move along the river.  The gravel, mud, and rocks go through the tailings (pipes) and any gold fragments are collected on felt mats.  The remaining gravel, mud, and rocks go back into the river, but in a different location than where it was originally suctioned.  This creates problems for the river.  The displaced gravel and mud disrupt the natural flow of the river.  Fish and other living organisms often die and fishermen can no longer navigate in the obstructed rivers. 

How does mining affect the people?

• The people who are exposed to the toxic waste from the tailings become sick.  They develop skin rashes, headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.  In fact, the symptoms of mercury poisoning are very similar to the symptoms of malaria.  Many people who can not afford to go to a doctor, or who live in a village where a doctor is not accessible, are often not treated for their illnesses.   
• If the water is contaminated, the people can not use it for bathing, cooking, or washing their clothes.
• If the man of the household is a small scale miner, he often leaves his wife and children in search of work.  This means that the wife and children must work and provide for themselves.  They must also protect themselves from thieves. 
• Theft, drugs/alcohol, prostitution, rape, and sexual abuse are unfortunately some of the effects of mining. 
• Cultural degradation also occurs in mining villages.  For example, mining often destroys sacred sites and cemetaries.  In Guyana, a special fishing event called Haiari Fishing unfortunately can not take place if the river has been dredged for gold.  Remember, the displacement of the gravel and mud obstruct the natural flow of the river.  As a result, fish and other organisms die. 

Where does mining occur?

Mining occurs in many places around the world, including the U.S.  In South America, mining is particularly active in the Amazonia region, Guyana, Suriname, and other South American countries.  In Central Africa, mining devastated a National Park called Kahuzi-Biega in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).  South Africa is also very well known for mining diamonds.  Mining also occurs in Indonesia and other S.E. Asian countries. 

Three case studies:  Guyana, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Indonesia:

• In Guyana, both large and small scale mining occur.  In the early 1980's, the price of gold spiked from $100-$150 per ounce to $700 per ounce!  This created huge incentives for governments to allow mining companies to come into their countries.  Omai mining company established an 11,000 acre site in the middle of Guyana.  From 1986 to 2001, this company excavated 3/4 of all the gold in Guyana.  Not only was the mining company making huge sums of money, but the Guyana government was also benefiting from the revenues; owning 5% of the companies shares.  However, in 1995 the tailings dam, which was filled with three million cubic meters of cyanide waste, collapsed and spilled into the Essequibo River, the biggest river in Guyana.  The toxic waste drained north- exposing 10,000 people (both residents and eco-tourists).  All of the fish in the river died, and although no one died from the toxic exposure, many people developed skin rashes and respiratory problems.  In addition to large scale mining, small scale mining is very popular in Guyana.  Miners apply for permits from the government and mine at sites where the residents do not have official land titles.  This makes residents who never received official land titles from the government very vulnerable to both the detrimental environmental and social effects of mining.  As mentioned previously, small and middle scale mining is often worse than large scale mining because of the area covered.  For example, Omai (a large scale mining company) mined 11,000 acres, whereas small scale miners mined 234,000 acres, and middle scale miners mined 2 million acres!  That's a lot of degradation that both small and middle scale miners can cause!
• In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) the Kahuzi-Biega National Park was designated a World Heritage Site in 1980 because of its rich bio-diversity in both plants and animals.  In fact, 86% of the Grauer's gorilla, a subspecies which is endemic to this region, was found in this park.  However, all that has changed.  In the late 1990's, armed factions involved in the civil war set up mining operations within the boundaries of the park to extract valuable minerals such as tantalum and cassiterite.  Thousands of Congolese whose lives had been devastated by the war subsequently flooded to the mines in search of a quick buck (Furniss, 2005).  An estimated 15,000 people were thought to be working at about a hundred sites throughout the park.  Tragically, not only were tantalum and cassiterite extracted, but also trees, vegetation, and large mammals.  The miners hired hunters to feed the people working at the mining sites.  Gorillas, elephants, chimpanzees, buffaloes and antelope at first were easily found within proximity to the park.  But, as the months passed, it became increasingly more difficult to find large mammals.  Hunters searched longer and farther.  By March of 2001, most of the large animals had all been killed.  The Grauer's gorilla suffered the most, since this unique gorilla sub-species is only found in this area.  Before the mining, the total population was estimated to be 17,000- with 86% living in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park.  Now, it is estimated that only 2-3,000 Grauer's gorillas remain.  According to Ian Redmond, the chairman of the Ape Alliance, "If these numbers are confirmed, it would be catastrophic for the subspecies."  He also states that the remaining Grauer's gorilla population is fragmented which makes them more vulnerable to poaching and inbreeding.  The fate of this sub-species is unknown at this time. 
• In Indonesia, a U.S. mining company based in Denver (Newmont) has been extracting gold since 1996.  This company no longer mines in this region for two reasons: (1) in 2004, they extracted all the gold, and (2) the company is currently being sued by the Indonesian government for intentionally dumping poisonous waste, such as arsenic and mercury, into the Buyat Bay.  This waste has poisoned the fish in the bay.  This was, sadly, their main source of protein and economic livelihood.  In addition, many people in this region have complained of headaches, breathing difficulty, and skin rashes and tumors.  One newborn was born with birth defects and died at the age of 3 months.  The company has denied any wrong doing and blames these symptoms and incidents on poor sanitation and nutrition!

What can we do as global citizens to curb the effects of mining?

• Make companies who exploit developing countries accountable for their actions.
• Boycott products produced by companies who do not mine is environmentally responsible ways.
• Start talking.  Tell your family members, friends, teachers, and members in your community about the effects of mining and how jewelry made fo gold, silver, and diamonds can be substituted for other metals which are mined in responsible ways. 
• Write letters to governments who do not properly compensate people who have been affected by pollution from mining companies. 
• Spread awareness of this issue by sharing your knowledge.  This is how change occurs.  Here's a great quote to keep in mind,

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world.  Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has."                                            

-Margaret Mead

Now, show yourself what you've learned in this lesson my answering these questions:

1. Name two minerals or metals that are mined.
2. Choose the correct answer:  Extraction means the (addition/removal) of minerals or metals from earth's soil. 
3. What's the difference between large scale mining and small scale mining?
4. Why is mining destructive to the environment?
5. Fill in the blanks:  One of the environmental effects of land dredging is stagnant ________ pools.  These pools attract __________.  People who live near these pools have a greater chance of getting ____________.
6. T or F River dredging is a type of small scale mining.  This type of mining affects the natural flow of the river.  Fish and other living organisms often die in these obstructed rivers.  This also affects the fishermen's livelihood. 
7. Name two effects of mining on the people.
8. T or F The Omai mining company's tailings dam collapsed in 1995.
9. Before mining occured in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, what percentage of Grauer's gorillas lived there?
10. Now that mining has devastated this National Park, how many Grauer's gorillas are estimated to exist currently?  What does this mean to this sub-species of gorilla? 

Answers are located after the references.

Pen Pal Conversation: After reading about the case studies, what do you think about both large and small scale mining?  Do you think that governments have a responsibility to protect their environment and indigenous people from being exploited by mining companies?  What role do you think the government has in regulating both small and medium scale miners? 

References:

Kricher, J. (1997).  A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, & ecosystems of the New World Tropics.  New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Peterson, G. D., & Heemskerk, M.  (2001) Deforestation and forest regeneration following small-scale gold mining in the Amazon: The case of Suriname.  Environmental Conservation 28(2): 117-126. 

Furniss, C. (2005) Seizing the moment: The Great Apes Survival Project.  Africa Geographic, July issue: 41-51.

www.africageographic.com

Lecture notes from ENVS 80 A: Logan Hennessy

Answers to questions:

1. Manganese and gold
2. removal
3. Large scale mining involves a large company with many workers.  These are also localized at one or two sites.  Small scale mining involves a group of traveling men, usually about 5-8, who migrate from one mining site to another.  This type of mining tends to be more destructive to the environment because of the area of land covered.  It also causes more social problems because small scale miners mine where residents do not have official land titles.  Tension and resentment builds and causes many social quarrels and unfortunate effects to the indigenous people. 
4. Trees and vegetation are cleared and burned.  Natural minerals and metals are stripped from the soil.  Chemicals used to amalgamate (cluster) the gold are often expelled into rivers, streams, and oceans causing pollution to the environment, animals, and people. 
5. water, mosquitoes, malaria
6. T
7. Illnesses from contaminated water and cultural degradation
8. T
9. 86%
10. 2-3,000.  This could be catastrophic to this species.  They are more vulnerable to poaching and inbreeding. 

How did you do? I bet you did TERRIFIC!

The following standards were covered in this lesson:

Reading:  1.5 Demonstrate knowledge of levels of specificity among grade-appropriate words and explain the importance of these relations.

Reading comprehension:  Demonstrating comprehension by identifying answers in the text (lesson).

Social Studies:  3.12 Trace the ways in which people have used the resources of the local region and modified the physical environment.

Life Science:  3 (c) Students know living things cause changes in the environment in which they live: some of these changes are detrimental to the organism or other organisms, and some are beneficial. 

Cattle-ranching

Most of us know what cattle-ranching is and what purpose it serves, right?

Cattle...cow...mooooo...Cows basically live on a pasture and graze the land.  When they reach a certain size and weight, they are slaughtered for either human or pet consumption in the form of: hamburgers, steaks, luncheon meats, baby food, sausage, and frozen foods; and pet food for your cat or dog. 

In addition, cows can live on a farm and provide milk and other dairy products to a farmer, such as: butter, cheese, sour cream, ice cream, etc. 

I bet you didn't know that...

four Central American countries- Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras- were among the top ten countries ranked by the percentage loss of forests during the period 1981-85.  Costa Rica averaged an annual loss of 3.9% of its forests, largely due to the vast expansion of cattle ranching.  By 1983, about 83% of Costa Rica forests had been felled (cut down), mostly for beef production, and much of that was shipped to the U.S. for use as hamburger (Kricher, 1997, p. 339). 

So, you can see how raising cattle can literally wipe out existing rain forests!

Fact:  The fast food hamburger market in the U.S. required vast amounts of low-quality cheap meat.  The result was widespead deforestation in Central America (WRM Briefing).

Fact:  300 million pounds of beef are imported to the U.S. from Central America alone (RAN, 2004).

Fact:  Campbell's Soup uses rain forest beef.  Burger King backed down on its use of rain forest beef after a Rainforest Action Network boycott (RAN, 2004). 

Does Central America still export beef to the U.S.?

Costa Rica no longer does.  I'm not sure whether the other Central American countries do (Panama, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatamala, Honduras, and Belize).

So, what's happened to all of the pastures and cattle in Costa Rica?

When Costa Rica stopped exporting cattle to the U.S., it was left with millions of acres of cleared land and cattle.  Today, 3/4 of the cattle are located in the Province Guanacaste (Pacific Northwest side of Costa Rica). 

Why do you think the U.S. stopped importing cattle from Costa Rica?

I don't have the answer to this, but we can discuss possible reasons:

• maybe because the U.S. decided to invest in cattle ranching themselves, i.e., Texas and the Big Island of Hawaii, believe it or not, have the two biggest cattle ranches in the the U.S.  This is where most of the beef in the U.S comes from.
• maybe the U.S. didn't want to pay import taxes on Costa Rican beef anymore.
• maybe the U.S. is importing beef from another country which has a cheaper import tax. 
• maybe the U.S. was afraid of mad cow disease and wanted to raise the cattle in the U.S. to make sure it was disease-free...
• any ideas you can think of?

Is there anything being done to recover the many barren pastures in Costa Rica?

Yes.  Rain forest restoration researchers are trying to figure out effective strategies to restore the pastures.  Some of the obstacles to this recovery are:

• seed availability: there are no parent trees to provide seeds because the pastures have been cleared
• lack of seed dispersal:  there are no animals (except for cows) to disperse the seeds in these empty pastures, i.e., birds, bats, and other mammals used to spread the seeds throughout the forest
• high seed/seedling predation: rodents, leaf-cutter ants, and rabbits will eat seeds and seedlings that are planted for restoration efforts
• lack of moisture and increased light exposure create arid (dry) conditions which cause fires.  Most tropical forest seedlings are not adapted to fire so this can set back recovery a number of years (Holl, 2002). 

What are some potential solutions to restore these barren pastures?

It's too soon to tell, but Karen Holl (a professor at UCSC, the same school where I'm a grad student) is conducting a study in Agua Buena, Costa Rica to try and answer these research questions:

1. Is forest recovery more strongly affected by within site restoration or proximity to surrounding forests?
2. Will planting islands of tree seedlings (clustered groups) enhance forest recovery to a similar degree as planting seedlings in a homogenous plantation (mono-crop)?

Time will tell what the study reveals. 

Central America isn't the only region where cattle ranching occurs.  In Brazil, cattle ranches occupy somewhere around 8.4 million hectares (20.7 million acres), averaging 24,000 hectares (59,300 acres) each, with some as large as 560,000 hectares (1,383,760 acres).  You would think that the government would be making a lot of money from these cattle ranches, since the U.S. is such a major consumer, but surprisingly, the overall mean output from these ranches averaged only 9% of what was projected. 

In fact, the government is not only losing money from these ranches, they are also giving money (through generous tax breaks and subsidies) to owners of large cattle ranches (Kricher, 1997).  For example, a ranch about 20,000 hectares (49,429 acres) receives about a 75% subsidy (financial assistance from the government!)  Does that make sense?

What's the real reason behind cattle ranching in Brazil?

Here's something interesting.  A small number of wealthy individuals were rewarded for locating vast cattle ranches within Amazonia.  The government provided long-term loans and tax credits to cover most of the investment costs, tax holidays, and write-offs.  Basically, these ranches were used as tax shelters rather than productive components of the Brazilian economy (Kricher, 1997). 

But that still doesn't answer the question, WHY?

One reason is when the Transamazon highway was finally paved in 1973, part of the objective was to move 100,000 families from overly populated, extremely poor urban cities into the Amazon Basin.  However, due to economic setbacks and political changes in Brazil, only 6,000 families moved to the Amazon Basin.  Curiously, the focus had shifted from moving people to increasing cattle production; five million cattle were moved into the area instead (Kricher, 1997). 

Another reason could be that these wealthy individuals who own cattle ranches could be very influential in who becomes elected as a political official.  This would explain why the government gives subsidies and allows ranch owners to use their cattle ranches as tax shelters.  This is just a guess.  What do you think? 

Aside from clearing rain forests and replacing them with pastures which become barren, what are other effects of cattle ranching on the environment?

What would you say if I said an increase in global warming.  What!  How?  Believe it or not, cow gas...okay, I'll say it- farts, are essentially methane gas.  This methane gas is released into earth's atmosphere where it absorbs heat just like carbon dioxide.  This heat absorption increases earth's temperature and we already know what the effects of that are on the environment:

• an increase in ocean temperature
• glaciers melting
• permafrost melting
• loss of ice habitat for native Alaskan people (and other indigenous tribes), polar bears, caribou, and other polar animals
• an increase in ocean water
• an increase in flooding
• a disturbance in weather patterns, i.e., an increase in the intensity (strength) and duration (time) of hurricanes (MIT scientists)
• environmental, social, and political problems

One should note that methane gas is not the direct cause of these environmental effects, but it is a contributing factor to global warming.  Something to ruminate about. 

Okay, let's see what you learned:

1. Which four Central American countries ranked the top as far as the percentage loss of forests during the period 1981-85.   
2. Fill in the blank:  By 1983, about _____ % of Costa Rica forests had been cut down, mostly for ________ production, and much of that was shipped to the U.S. for use as _____________.
3. T or F.  Does Campbell's Soup use rain forest beef in their products?
4. Can you name all 7 countries in Central America?
5. Choose the correct answer:  Costa Rica currently does not (import/export) beef to the U.S.
6. Name one obstacle to the recovery of barren, cattle pastures.
7. T or F.  Brazil's cattle industry is a money making business for the country.
8. Why do you think cattle ranch owners receive tax breaks and subsidies from the government in Brazil?
9. Name a gas mentioned in this lesson that is a contributing factor to global warming.  Where does this gas come from?
10. Name one effect of global warming mentioned in this lesson.

Answers are located after the references.

Pen Pal Conversation:  Discuss with your pen pal the effects of cattle ranching on rain forests.  Knowing what you now know, does this persuade you to become a vegetarian, yes or no?   If you eat fast food burgers, will you continue to eat them, yes or no?  If you eat Campbell's Soup, will you continue eating it?  Will you write a letter or call fast food companies and Campbell's Soups asking them to not purchase beef from countries where rain forests were deforested in order to cattle ranch?

References:

Kricher, J. (1997).  A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, & ecosystems of the New World Tropics.  New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Holl, D. K. (2002).  Tropical Moist Forest Restoration.  Published in Handbook of Restoration. Vol II: Cambridge University Press

http://www.wrm.org.uy/publications/briefings/underlying.html

http://www.ran.org/info_center/factsheets/04f.html

http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20costarica.htm

Answers to questions:

1. Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras
2. 83%, beef, hamburger
3. T
4. Costa Rica, Panama, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatamala, Honduras, and Belize.
5. export
6. lack of seed dispersal (spreading)
7. F
8. Because cattle ranch owners are wealthy and influential in who becomes elected as a public official
9. methane, cows!
10. the melting of glaciers and permafrost

So, how did you do? I'm sure you did SUPER!

The following standards were addressed in this lesson:

Reading:  1.7 Use a dictionary to learn the meaning and other features of unknown words (import, export, subsidies, etc).

Writing Applications:  2.3 Write personal and formal letter, thank-you notes, and invitations (a) show awareness of the knowledge and interests of the audience and establish a purpose and context.

Social Studies:  3.32 Describe the economics established by settlers and their influence on the present-day economy, with emphasis on the importance of private property and entrepreneurship.  3.52 Understand that some goods are made locally, some elsewhere in the U.S., and some abroad. 

Agriculture

What is agriculture?

Agriculture, or farming, is the simplification of nature's food webs and the rechanneling of energy for human planting and animal consumption.  Huh?  You may ask.  To simplify, agriculture involves redirecting nature's natural flow of the food web.  The natural flow of the food web is-the sun provides light to plants.  Plants convert sunlight into sugars which provide food for the plants (this process is called photosynthesis).  Plants provide food for herbivores (plant-eating animals, i.e., sloths) and the herbivores provide food for carnivores (meat-eating animals, i.e., jaguars).  Decomposers, such as bacteria, break down plants or animals that have died.  Nutrients from the plants and animals go back into the soil and the whole process starts anew. 

What happens with agriculture is that this web is interrupted.  Instead of having herbivores eat the plants, the plants are protected for human consumption.  This means that not only are plant eating animals excluded from the food web, but also carnivorous animals and even decomposers.  However, if a farmer is planting corn to feed their cattle, the cattle eat the corn to fatten up and then are eventually slaughtered for human consumption.  Even though a herbivore (cow) is eating the plant (corn), the web is interrupted when the cow is killed for human consumption. 

Are there different types of agriculture?

Yes.  There is conventional agriculture and sustainable agriculture (agro-ecology).

Conventional agriculture, most commonly practiced in the United States, usually involves the following criteria:

• altering or changing the natural environment (removing trees, tilling the soil, installing an irrigation system, etc.
• mono-cropping, or planting one crop (ex: only corn is grown in a plot).
• the crops grown are nonrenewable- after harvesting, the plot is bare again and requires cultivation (tilling and plowing of the soil), fertilization, planting, irrigation (watering), and harvesting all over again.
• diversity is eliminated in order to maintain uniformity
• using insecticides and pesticides to keep insects and animals from eating the crops; these chemicals are not only poisonous to insects, animals and humans, they also pollute ground water, streams, rivers, and oceans. 
• using inorganic fertilizers to provide nutrients to the soil
• a lot of energy and work for the farmer to maintain this unnatural farming system; nature is more aligned with diversity (it wants to be wild) rather than controlled and uniform. 

Here are some examples of crops which undergo conventional agriculture: corn, wheat, rice, bananas, soy bean, etc

What are the effects of conventional agriculture? 

• since the plot is stripped of its natural environmental features, the plants are vulnerable to disease, high herbivore predation, and soil erosion.
• a decrease in bio-diversity means many animals lose their habitat and either relocate or become extinct.
• after harvesting, the plot is empty, leaving the soil bare and prone to soil erosion.
• the use of insecticides and pesticides pollutes the environment on many levels: the soil, streams, creeks, rivers, underground water sources, well water, the ocean, and even the air.  When these chemicals are ingested (eaten) or inhaled, they can poison animals and people.  This poisoning can cause severe illness and even death.
• crop disease, drought (no rain), fire, or heavy rain-fall can destroy a crop, thus causing severe economic hardship for the farmer and even the consumer because when the quantity of a crop is low (when the supply is low) the price is increased.

Sustainable agriculture (agro-ecology) uses ecological principles to farm, hence the prefix agro- to farm and ecology- the science of the relationship between organisms and their environments.  Agro-ecology involves:

• maintaining the natural environment and using ecological principles for sustained farming practices
• poly-cropping, or planting many crops together (ex: planting rows of corn, bean, and squash together rather than in separate plots, like in mono-cropping)
• since many plants are planted together, and each one has a different harvesting period, the plot is never bare.  This reduces soil erosion.
• diversity is maintained and even increased over time
• a diverse system of plants may attract several species of herbivores.  Some of these herbivores like to eat specific kinds of plants.  Predator species usually do not have a preference for which herbivores to eat.  This predation keeps the herbivore population in check, thus reducing predation of any one crop.
• Plants- such as citrosa, are natural insect repellents.  This eliminates the need to use insecticides.
• nutrients from each intercrop plant provide different nutrients to the soil, thus increasing its fertility (ability to sustain life).
• less energy is required from the farmer because the agriculture system sustains itself

Here are some examples of sustainable agriculture crops: shade coffee; multiple cropping in Germany- for example, they plant carrots, beets, and onions together in a plot; in Mexico, they do the same with corn, beans, and squash.  In Italy, they plant both annual and perennial crops to create a diverse home garden; in other areas, they use cover cropping in orchards to inhibit weed growth, etc.

What are the effects of sustainable agriculture?

• using ecological principles increases bio-diversity.  Not only are animals' homes salvaged, but the natural ecological system protects itself from soil erosion, severe herbivore predation, and crop disease.
• since insecticides and pesticides are not used, pollution and the harmful effects of ingesting these poisons are not an issue
• since each intercropping plant supplies a different nutrient to the soil, less or (even no) fertilizers are added to the soil
• this type of agriculture is aligned with nature and uses the principles of nature to sustain itself (there's nothing better than that!)
• farmers experience less or no economic loss with this type of agriculture system because the natural environment protects itself from crop disease (due to diversity of species), soil erosion (benefits of intercropping plants with different harvesting periods), flooding (the intercropping plants absorb heavy rain-falls), droughts (the intercrops provide moisture and shade for each other), and fire (extra moisture and shade keeps plants from drying out and becoming more susceptible to fire).

Which type of agriculture practice do you think is better for the environment and ultimately ourselves?  Before you answer, here are some interesting facts:

Did you know that according to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) that 90% of deforestation is caused by unsustainable agriculture?

Did you know that in Costa Rica, 133 ant species and 126 beetle species were found in just one shade coffee tree.  Talk about diversity! 

Okay, so which agricultural practice is better?  Did you say sustainable agriculture?  I can't hear you ...say it louder, SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE!  You're right on the money, in more ways than one. 

So, you've heard the term slash-and-burn agriculture and you're wondering what that is?

This is a type of unsustainable agriculture.  It occurs in rain forests where the soil is poor in nutrients.  Remember, most of the nutrients are "locked" in the leaf litter, plants, and trees.  The soil gets its nutrients from the leaf litter and plants.  Farmers who practice slash-and-burn agriculture know that the nutrients are "locked" in the vegetation.  This is why they slash (cut) and burn the trees, plants and leaves.  The ashes from the burned vegetation provide nutrients to the soil (fertilize the soil) for the planting of both staple and cash crops.  After a few years, the soil loses its nutrients and the farmers migrate to another piece of forest to clear and burn a new plot of land for planting. 

Staple crops are plants that farmers can live on: manioc, plantains, bananas, sweet potato, pineapple, chili pepper, and others.

Cash crops are crops farmers can sell for money: sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, etc.

Is this type of agriculture harmful to the environment?

It can be if farmers raise cattle on an agriculture field that has just been farmed for 2 years (the maximum fertility of a slash-and-burn agriculture field).  This can be a death sentence to the soil, since the cattle remove the last traces of fertility from the soil. 

Should we blame these farmers for the deforestation of forests?

No.  There are many complex factors which play into the deforestation of forests.  We've already learned about logging as a major factor, but we havn't discussed the international, national, and local factors.  One reason why these nomadic farmers practice slash-and-burn agriculture is because they have no other means of employment and thus survival.  They must plant crops to eat (to sustain their lives) and they must make money (by selling cash crops).  If the government provided job opportunities for these farmers, maybe they wouldn't have to move every two years to clear another patch of rain forest in order to plant their crops. What do you think?

An upside to slash-and-burn agriculture:

According to Kricher, a study in Costa Rica demonstrated that slash and burn does not, in the short run, degrade the soil.  Researcher cut, mulched, and burned a site that contained patches of eight- to nine-year-old forest and seventy-year-old forest.  Before the burn there were approximately 8,000 seeds per square meter of soil, representing 67 species.  After the burn the figure dropped to 3,000 seeds/square meter, representing 37 species.  Mycorrhizal fungi survived the burn, and large quantities of nutrients were released to the soil following burning.  The remaining seeds sprouted, and vegetation regrew vigorously on the site (Kricher, 1997, p. 177). 

What's agriculture like in Costa Rica?

Agriculture products in Costa Rica include: coffee, pineapples, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes, palm (oil); beef; and timber.  Bananas are Costa Rica's number one export.  This has been a blessing, in that, it has provided a lot of money to the country, but it has also created some problems.  From a social perspective, the job opportunities in the banana plantations have enticed poor people from Nicaragua to immigrate to Costa Rica.  This has caused tension between the Costa Rican farmers and the Nicarguan people; both groups wind up competing for jobs in the banana plantations.  From an environmental perspective, the banana plantations cover 245,440 hectares of land, all of which used to be tropical rain forests.  Supposedly, the climate is "perfect" for growing bananas.  In addition, rivers have become terribly polluted with blue-plastic bags and, most likely pesticides, since the bananas are sprayed.  These blue bags are used to cover the bananas while they are growing in the plantation fields.  The Sarah Piqui River often has blue bags everywhere! 

What about shade grown coffee?

Yes!  There is a wonderful organization called CAN (Community Agroecology Network) which helps local Costa Rican farmers grow coffee in a sustainable way and earn more money per pound of coffee. 

How does CAN do this? 

The co-op basically cuts out all the middle-men who take money from the farmers as the coffee moves from the field to the market.  When this happens, more money is left for the farmers.  In fact, farmers earn even more money through this co-op than they would through conventional Fair Trade. 

How do these farmers grow their coffee?

All of their coffee is shade grown and they maintain the natural, bio-diverse environment to grow their coffee.  They also use sustainable planting practices such as intercropping and cover-cropping.  In addition, no insecticides or pesticides are used and farmers practice reforestation as well. 

How can we support these farmers?

Easy!  If you want to learn more about the co-op, check out their web-site at www.communityagroecology.net.  In fact, one of the CAN communities is located in Agua Buena, Coto Brus; just south of Manuel Antonio.  If you'd like to order coffee, just print out the form on the web-site and send it in or order on-line.  In no time, you'll receive a large bag of aromatic, organic, Costa Rican coffee at your door-step.  It's the best coffee ever!  This is a great gift for your parents or relatives who must have that cup of coffee in the morning.

Also, when you graduate from high-school, you can do an internship with CAN and learn how these farmers grow their coffee in a sustainable way.  You can also help other coffee farmers do the same through outreach education and collaboration. 

It's that time again.  Show yourself what you've learned by answering the following questions:

1. What is conventional agriculture and is it aligned with how the natural food-web works?
2. Can you name a crop that is conventionally grown and harvested?
3. What is sustainable agriculture and how is it aligned with the natural food-web?
4. Can you provide an example of sustainable agriculture?
5. Name one effect of conventional agriculture and how this may be harmful to the environment.
6. Name one effect of sustainable agriculture and how this benefits the environment. 
7. Which agricultural practice is better for the environment and ultimately ourselves?
8. T or F.  Slash-and-burn agriculture is not harmful to the environment if the land is used for 2 years or less. 
9. Match each term with its meaning:

          staple crops           a.)  no rain

          nomadic                 b.) a co-op which helps coffee farmers

          drought                 c.)  sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, etc

          cash crops             d.)  traveling

          CAN                       e.)  plantains, sweet potato, bananas

    10.  T or F.  Poor farmers are to blame for the deforestation of rainforests.   

Answers are located after the references.

Pen Pal Question and Conversation:  Discuss with your Pen Pal what you can do as global citizens to encourage sustainable agriculture.  How would you encourage your friends, family members, and local farmers to do the same?  Please remember to type your response in the Comments Section at the end of the lesson.  Don't forget to type your name in as well.

References: 

Kricher, J. (1997).  A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, & ecosystems of the New World Tropics.  New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

A chapter, Introduction To Agroecology, from a book by Greg Gilbert.

www.communityagroecology.net

http://www.wrm.org.uy/publications/briefings/underlying.html

Answers to the questions:

1. Conventional agriculture is most commonly practice in the U.S. and involves changing the environment to plant crops for human beings.  It is not aligned with how the natural food-web works because the plants are protected for human consumption.  This means that herbivores, carnivores, and even decomposers are left out of the picture. 
2. corn

3. Sustainable agriculture (agro-ecology) uses ecological principles to farm, hence the prefix agro- to farm and ecology- the science of the relationship between organisms and their environments. 

4. shade grown coffee

5. Insecticides and pesticides are harmful to the environment because they pollute the soil, streams, creeks, rivers, underground water, well water, and oceans.  They are harmful to animals and humans because they are poisonous and can cause serious illness and even death. 

6. Intercropping adds nutrients to the soil, prevents erosion, and provides moisture and shade to the other plants within the plot.

7. sustainable agriculture!

8. True

9. staple crops    e.) plantains, sweet potatoes, and bananas

          nomadic          d.) traveling

          drought          a.) no rain

          cash crops      c.) sugar cane, coffee, and tobacco

          CAN                b.) a co-op which help coffee farmers

     10.  False!

How did you do?  I'm sure you did FANTASTIC!

The following standards were addressed in this lesson:

Physcial Sciences: Energy and matter have multiple forms and can be changed from one form to another.  As a basis for understanding this concept (a) Students know energy comes from the Sun to Earth in the form of light, and (b) Students know sources of stored energy take many forms, such as food, fuel, and batteries.  Note: This lesson address food as a source of stored energy. 

Life Sciences: Students know living things cause changes in the environment in which they live: some of these changes are detrimental to the organsim or other organisms, and some are beneficial.

Reading: Vocabulary and Concept Development (1.6) Use sentence and word context to find the meaning of unknown words (1.8) Use knowledge of prefixes (e.g., un-, re-, pre-, bi-, mis-, dis-,) to determine the meaning of words. 

Writing:  Organization and Focus (1.1) Create a single paragraph (a) Develop a topic sentence, and (b) Include simple supporting facts and details. 

Social Studies:  3.5 Students demonstrate basic economic reasoning skills and an understanding of the economy of the local region.  (1) Describe the ways in which local producers (and abroad) have used and are using natural resources, human resources, and capital resources to produce goods and services in the past and the present. 

         

         

         

 

Logging

What is Logging?

Logging, or commerical logging, involves cutting trees for sale as timber or pulp.  The timber is used to build homes, furniture, etc and the pulp is used to make paper and paper products.  Logging is generally categorized into two categories:  selective and clear-cutting. 

Selective logging is selective because loggers choose only wood that is highly valued, such as mahogany. 

Clear-cutting is not selective.  Loggers are interested in all types of wood and therefore cut all of the trees down, thus clearing the forest, hence the name- clear-cutting. 

You may be wondering if selective logging is better for the forest than clear-cutting? 

This is a very interesting question!  You think it would be, but actually selective logging can be very damaging to the surrounding trees which are not selected for loggging.  What happens is that the heavy equipment used to cut the selected trees often damages the surrounding trees.  It is estimated that 40% (40 out of 100 trees) die from just one tree that is selectively logged (Kricher, 1997). That's a lot of damage! 

Which logging practice is worse, selective logging or clear cutting? 

It depends on who you ask.  According to NASA, clear cutting is much more damaging to a tropical rain forest because when all of the trees are removed, the soil loses its nutrients and becomes barren (NASA, 1998). 

However, according to Ashton, in some cases, it is better to clear-cut a forest than to selectively log it.  With selective logging, the largest trees are taken which means a loss in the seed source.  The trees remaining often shade seedlings (small plants) that need sunlight to grow and eventually become trees.  Clear-cutting is better when the soil already contains seeds.  With clear-cutting, all of the seedlings are exposed to an equal and uniform amount of light.  This equal amount of sunlight helps the young plants to grow and eventually become trees (Ashton lecture, 2005). 

Is there a type of logging practice that is not so damaging to the environment you may ask? 

Yes, there is.  It's called strip logging.  This type of logging is designed to mimic or copy the natural succession (re-growth) of a rainforest. 

How does it work?

Strip logging involves the clear-cutting of a relatively thin strip of forest that parallels a river (goes along the river) along a slope.  A gallery forest (bordering the river) is left intact, but a strip is cut immediately upslope and the desirable timber is removed by a road that is also designed to parallel the river.  Following this, another strip is cut several years later immediately upslope to the first strip and the road.  Nutrients eroded (broken down) from the newly cut strip wash down slope and aid in spreading the recovery of the first strip (Kricher, 1997, p. 346).  The process allows the strip to regenerate (regrow) while selecting another strip upslope.  It also prevents erosion (the wearing down of nutrients from the soil) because the strip is buffered by a row of trees remaining and a supply of nutrients from the newly cut strip.  Smart, huh?

Why does logging happen?

Logging occurs for many economical reasons, such as: agriculture (planting crops), cattle-ranching, mining, oil and gas extraction, development, and subsistence-farming.  The logs, or wood, are also used to make homes, furniture, paper, pencils, wood-chips for packaging products, fuel for cooking and providing heat for homes, etc. 

Can we use other materials for building homes and furniture?

Sure!  Why not use plastic, metal, stone, brick, or even sponge glass!  Sponge glass is found in the ocean and is one of the strongest and most durable materials in nature. 

What can we do as consumers (buyers) to decrease the logging of rainforests?  Be creative.  Here's a start:

• Always use both sides of paper when writing, drawing, photo-copying, typing, faxing, etc.
• Recycle all paper products.
• Buy recycled paper and paper products: notebook paper, paper towels, toilet paper, books, etc.
• Read the newspaper on-line.
• Use pencils until they become stubs.  Think of pencils as pieces of gold; you'll never lose them if you do.
• If you do buy wood or furniture made of wood, make sure it is Certified wood.  This means the trees were legally cut-down.
• If you buy a product that is packaged with wood-chips, write the company and suggest they use another packaging material, hmmm, like recycled paper, straw, or hay.  Hey!  That sounds good. 
• Write letters of protest to companies which log illegally or in ways which are harmful to the environment.
• Okay, now you try...

What are some of the effects of logging irresponsibly?

1. Loss of bio-diversity.  Many species live in, on, or near primary trees.  When these trees are cut down, species lose their habitat, source of food, and shelter.  Also, primary trees provide seeds for new trees to grow.  When these trees are cut, the seed source is lost.
2. Extinctions.  Many species can not live without trees.  When trees are cut, animals lose their homes, source of food, and shelter. 
3. Erosion.  Trees and leaves (leaf litter) provide nutrients for the soil in rainforests.  Without trees, a rainforest becomes barren and without life.  Trees also prevent erosion by absorbing water, thus preventing the washing away of nutrients in the top-soil. 
4. Flooding.  Trees keep the soil stable by absorbing rain water.  Rainforests receive 1,500-3,000 mm of water annually (hmmm, how many inches is that?)  That's a lot of water!  Without trees, flooding and mud-slides can occur causing serious environmental and ecomonic damage.  Seedlings (young plants) and existing trees can be wiped out as well as nearby homes and buildings.  Many people have lost their lives due to massive floods and land slides. 
5. Obstruction of rivers and streams.  With erosion and flooding, the soil and silt often runs into rivers and streams.  This sedimentation (soil and silt) clouds the water and sometimes prevents fish and other species from making their nests and laying their eggs.  For example, salmon need clear rivers and streams with small pebbles to make their nests and lay their eggs. 
6. Forest fragmentation affects the living space of species.  It cuts their habitat into fragments or pieces.  This can have a serious affect on their habitat, food availability, and migration patterns.  Many species have decreased or even become extinct due to forest fragmentation.
7. Climate change.  Trees sequester (store) carbon.  When trees are cut or burned down, the carbon is released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.  Carbon dioxide is a green house gas which means it absorbs heat.  This absorption of heat is called global warming and has serious environmental and economical consequences.  It increases the earth's temperature, thus causing glaciers to melt and sea-levels to rise; it disrupts earth's weather patterns.  For example, droughts, massive floods, and extremely powerful hurricanes are just some of the effects of global warming. 

What's happening with logging in Costa Rica?

Costa Rica has lost over 60% of its forest cover to logging, agriculture, and cattle ranching.  Although 40% of Costa Rica's land contains forests, only a small percentage of primary forests remain.  The peninsula of Osa, an area barely 25 kilometers wide and 57 kilometers long, contains the last primary forests of the entire Pacific coast of Central America.  Unfortunately, this peninsula is being illegally logged. 

Why are primary forests important?  Primary forests are rich in bio-diversity.  In the entire peninsula, there are more than 1,513 species of plants unique to the area.  There are also about 500 species of trees.  In Corcovado alone, one of the two national parks in the Osa peninsula (Corcovado and Piedras Blancas), scientists have documented 124 species of mammals and 375 species of birds.  According to the environmental organization, Fundacion Neotropica, the trees in the Osa peninsula are comparable- in structural complexity and biological diversity- with those of Amazonia, Central Africa, and Asia.  When these trees are logged, bio-diversity is lost. 

Why is it being logged?  Loggers are interested in the most desirable species of trees.  Some of these species are: cristobal, mahogany, nazareno, espavel, and cedar.

Why isn't it being protected?  Although the logging is low-intensity and continues to be prohibited, the government is granting permits for controlled cutting called "plans of operation."  The problem is there isn't enough forestry workers to enforce and monitor controls.  With a limited amount of forestry workers and a lack of economic resources, illegal logging is occuring. 

A social issue as well?  The 6,000 inhabitants of Osa have suffered unemployment for years.  Sawmill owners entice these jobless inhabitants with money in exchange for permits or "plans of operation" to log on their properties. 

Is there a solution?  What do you think? 

Can reforestation of these primary forests restore bio-diversity?  Although reforestation takes place in commercial or secondary forests, it can not replace lost bio-diversity.

What's being done?  The Minister of the Environment is coordinating volunteers, the national police, and other state institutions to patrol the peninsula and monitor "plans of operation." 

Time to show yourself what you have learned:

1. What is the difference between selective logging and clear-cutting?
2. In your opinion, which category of logging is more harmful to the environment and why?
3. What is strip logging and what are its benefits?
4. Why does logging occur?  For what reasons?
5. Can you match these words with their meaning:

           parallel                                            a.) regrowth

           leaf litter                                          b.) habitat is cut into pieces

           regeneration                                    c.)  provides nutrients to soil

           fragmentation                                  d.)  goes along or next to

6.  Choose the correct word:  When primary forests are cut down, bio-diversity _____________ (increases or decreases).

7.  A synonym (a similar word) for sequester is _________.

8.  Fill in the blanks:  Trees _______ carbon.  When trees are cut or burned down, the carbon is ________ into the atmosphere in the form of ____________. 

Carbon dioxide is a green house gas which means it absorbs heat.  This absorption of heat is called ___________ and has serious environmental and economical consequences.

9.  What are two effects of global warming?

10. Name two materials we can use to build homes instead of using wood.

Math question:  If rainforest receive 1,500-3,000 mm of water annually, how many inches is that? 

Answers are located after the references (please don't look until you have completed all 10 questions).

Pen Pal Conversation:  Discuss with your pen pal possible solutions to the illegal logging in the Osa peninsula.  Be creative.  Remember to write to your Pen Pal in the Comments Section after this lesson.  Please type your name as well. 

References:

Kricher, J. (1997).  A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, & ecosystems of the New World Tropics.  New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

If you would like to read the complete article on logging in the Osa peninsula, click on this link:

http://forests.org/archive/samerica/ilthrosa.htm

Answers to the questions:

1.  Selective logging only cuts down certain trees (valuable trees), whereas clear-cutting cuts down all of the trees. 

2.  This is your opinion...there is no "right answer"

3.  Strip logging involves the clear-cutting of a relatively thin strip of forest that parallels a river (goes along the river) along a slope.  A gallery forest (bordering the river) is left intact, but a strip is cut immediately upslope and the desirable timber is removed by a road that is also designed to parallel the river.  Another strip is cut several years later upslope from the first strip.  Nutrients are replaced from the remaining trees upslope. 

4.  Logging occurs for many economical reasons, such as: agriculture (planting crops), cattle-ranching, mining, oil and gas extraction, development, and subsistence-farming.  The logs, or wood, are also used to make homes, furniture, paper, pencils, wood-chips for packaging products, fuel for cooking and providing heat for homes, etc. 

5.  parallel                                                       d.)  goes along or next to

     leaf litter                                                    c.)  provide nutrients to soil

     regeneration                                              a.)  regrowth

     fragmentation                                             b.) habitat is cut into pieces

6.  When primary forests are cut down, bio-diversity decreases.

7.  store

8.  Trees sequester carbon.  When trees are cut or burned down, the carbon is released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.  Carbon dioxide is a green house gas which means it absorbs heat.  This absorption of heat is called global warming and has serious environmental and economical consequences.

9.  Warmer temperatures and a rise in sea levels.

10. Stone and sponge glass!   

Math answer:  If rainforests receive 1,500-3,000 mm of water annually, how many inches is this?  To solve this we need to go from mm to cm to inches.  We can use this logic to help us do the conversion.  If there are 10 mm in 1 cm (a 10:1 ratio) then in 1,500 mm there are 150 cm.  To convert cm to inches, we use the conversion: 1 inch= 2.54 cm.  So, 150 cm = ______ inches/cm.  If we divide 150 by 2.54, we will solve the question.  The answer is about 60 inches of rain, and that's on the low end of the range!

How did you do? I bet you did super!

Note:  This integrated lesson is designed for 3rd grade students.  The following California standards are addressed in this lesson:

Reading: Vocabulary and Concept Development (1.6): Use sentence and word context to find the meaning of unknown words.

Reading Comprehension:  Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text (2.6): Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems and solutions.

Writing applications:  Write narratives (2.1): Write narratives: (a) Provide a context within which an action takes place. 

Life Science:  Students know living things cause changes in the environment in which they live: some of these changes are detrimental to the organism or other organisms, and some are beneficial.   

Social Studies:  Students understand the role of rules and laws in our daily lives and the basic structure of the U.S. government (3.42): Discuss the importance of public virtue and the role of citizens, including how to participate in a classroom, in the community, and in civic life.

Algebra and Functions: Express simple unit conversions in symbolic form (1.4) (e.g.,____ inches=____ feet x 12).

Deforestation

What is Deforestation?

Deforestation refers to the cutting, clearing, and removal of rainforest or related ecosystems into less bio-diverse ecosystems such as pasture, cropland, or plantations (Kricher, 1997). 

What are the causes of deforestation?

I.   Logging

II.  Mining

III. Oil and gas extraction

IV. Cattle ranching

V.  Agriculture: Cash crops

VI. Local, National, and International factors: development, land titles, government subsidies to attract corporations into developing countries, trade agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA), civil wars, debt, lack of resources, and lack of law enforcement. 

Largest rainforests worldwide listed in descending order (from largest to smallest).

1. Amazon basin of South America
2. Congo river basin of Central Africa
3. S.E. Asia
4. New Guinea
5. Madagascar

Facts:

• Did you know that tropical rainforests, which cover 6-7% of the earth's surface, contain over half of all the plant and animal species in the world!
• Did you know that 57% of all rainforests remaining are located in the Neotropics, with 30% located in Brazil.

Overview of deforestation around the world:

Between 1960 and 1990, most of the deforestation occurred globally, with an increasing trend every decade.

• Brazil has the highest annual rate of deforestation today.
• Atlantic coast of Brazil has lost 90-95% of its rainforest.
• Central America has 50% of its rainforests.
• South America has 70% of its rainforests. 
• Philipines have lost 90% of its rainforests!
• Madagascar has lost 95% of its rainforests!
• El Salvador has lost 70-85% of its rainforest due to heavy bombing during the civil war 1984-1985.
• Sumatra has 15% of its rainforests left.
• Only 6% of Central Africa's forests are protected by law.

Statistics on Global Rates of Rainforest Destruction:

2.4 acres (1 hectare) per second: equivalent to two U.S. football fields

149 acres (60 hectares) per minute

214,000 acres (86,000 hectares) per day: an area larger than New York City

78 million acres (31 million hectares) per year: an area larger than Poland

On average, 137 species become extinct everyday; or 50,000 each year!

*If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world's rain forests will vanish within 100 years- causing unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the majority of plant and animal species on the planet*

What are the consequences of deforestation?

Environmental:

1. Extinctions (loss of biodiversity of microbes (bacteria), plants, insects, animals, indigenous peoples, etc. 
2. Habitat fragmentation.  This disturbes the animals' habitat and may force them to enter habitats which are already occupied.  This can pose many problems such as territorial conflicts, homelessness (loss of habitat), lack of food availability, migration disturbances, etc.
3. Soil erosion occurs when trees and plants are removed; the rain water washes the nutrients in the top soil away. 
4. Changes in watershed geomorphology.
5. Desertification (dry, hot, arid conditions).
6. Edge effects can change microclimates (small climates) which affect endemic species (native species which can only live in specific environmental and habitat conditions).
7. Climate change (more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, thus increasing the effects of global warming).
8. Pollution (ground, water and air pollution from oil extraction and mining chemicals).

Social impacts:

1. Loss of culture (indigenous peoples subsistence living in the rainforest).  People who live in the rainforest depend on the natural environment for food, shelter, materials for cooking, clothing, etc.  If the forest is cut down or if their environment becomes polluted from oil extraction and mining, they are forced to move or risk starvation and sickness.   
2. Displacement of people (loss of farmland, forest resources, etc).
3. Social conflicts and struggles over land and natural resources.
4. Conflicts over racial and ethnic rights.
5. Poisoning from oil and mining waste.
6. Economic uncertainty (price fluctuations and high interest rates on outstanding international loans with The World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 

What can we do to STOP or at least lessen the amount of deforestation and conserve our own use of natural resources such as wood, oil and gas, electricity, minerals and elements, and water?  Brainstorm...here's a start:

• Always use both sides of paper when writing, drawing, photo-copying, faxing, etc.
• Recycle paper, cans, glass, and plastic.
• Read the newspaper on-line.
• Buy paper products made from recycled paper: notebook paper, paper towels, toilet paper, books, etc.
• Use pencils until they are stubs!  Think of pencils as gold (you'll never lose them if you do).
• Encourage your parents, relatives, and friends to buy furniture and wood that is Certified.  That means the wood was legally cut-down.
• If you buy a product and you notice they use wood chips to package it, write to the company and suggest they use another packaging material.
• Trees get cut down for cattle to graze.  Instead of eating meat, think of eating other sources of protein such as fish, soy, beans, whole-wheat, and nuts. 
• Buy organic fruits and vegetables.  That means there are no insecticides or pesticides (poisonous chemicals) sprayed on the food.  If these chemicals kill insects and pests that try and eat the vegetables, think about how harmful they can be to you and the environment.   
• Instead of buying gold or diamonds, which are mined and cause environmental damage, consider jewelry that is made from materials that are not mined...such as glass.
• Encourage your parents, relatives, and friends to drive fuel efficient cars that get good gas mileage.  Hybrid and bio-diesel cars get great mileage and use less or no gasoline. 
• Even better, whenever possible, walk, bike, carpool or use mass transit (bus or train).
• Save electricity by turning off lights, t.v., radio, computer, etc when you are not using them.
• Save water by NOT taking baths; instead take quick showers (turning off the water while you soap up) and then turning it back on to rinse quickly.
• While washing your hands and brushing your teeth, turn off the water.  You'll save gallons if you do. 
• When washing the dishes or your parent's car, turn off the water while washing it with soap.  Rinse quickly after washing. 
• Hmmm, can you think of other ways to conserve wood, oil and gas, electricity, minerals and elements, and water, etc...?  Brainstorm with your pen pal or a family member.

Okay, now show YOURSELF what you have LEARNED by answering the following questions:

1. What does deforestation mean?  (Hint: The prefix de- means to remove or reduce).

    2.   Why does deforestation happen?  For what purpose(s)?

    3.   The largest rainforest in the world is located in:

          a.) The Philipines

          b.) The Congo Basin in Central Africa

          c.)  Peru

          d.) The Amazon Basin of South America

4.  If 2 U.S. football fields are destroyed every second, how many football fields are destroyed in 5 seconds?

5.  If 50,000 species become extinct every year, how many will become extinct in half a year?

6.  T or F:  Rainforests contain over half of all plant and animal species in the world?

7.  Fill in the blank: One environmental consequence of deforestation is __________.  This occurs when heavy rains wash nutrients from the soil. 

8.  Name two things you can do as a global citizen to decrease deforestation.

9.  Biodiversity refers to:

     a.)  The loss of animals and plants

     b.)  A variety, or many different kinds of living things

     c.)  When animals lose their living space or habitat

     d.)  An increase in the earth's temperature

10. Fill in the blank:  Indigenous people _______ in the rainforest.  They depend on the forest for their food, clothing, medicine, cooking and building materials. 

Answers are located after the references (please don't look until you have completed all 10 questions). 

Pen Pal Letter:  Imagine you're in class and your teacher reads an article about a U.S. company which is deforesting a rainforest in Brazil.  Your teacher encourages you and your classmates to write letters to the company.  Using the information you have learned in this lesson, write your letter to convince the company to STOP the deforestation.  Use the facts you have learned to support and provide evidence for your position.  Write your letter in the Comments Section after this lesson.  You and your Pen Pal will read each other's letters and provide positive feedback to each other.  Please don't forget to type your name in the Comments Section. 

References:

Kricher, J. (1997).  A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, & ecosystems of the New World Tropics.  New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 

Rainforest Action Network web-site:  http://ran.org/info_center/factsheets/04b.html

NASA web-site:  http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/ftp_docs/Deforestation.pdf

WRM Briefing:  This is an excellent site on deforestation!  http://www.wrm.org.uy/publications/briefings/underlying.html

Answers to questions:

1. Deforestation refers to the cutting, clearing, and removal of rainforest or related ecosystems into less bio-diverse ecosystems such as pasture, cropland, or plantations.

2. Logging, mining, oil and gas extraction, cattle ranching, agriculture, and International, National, and Local reasons. 

3. d.) The Amazon Basin in South America

4. 2 U.S. football field= 1 second, then

   ? U.S. football fields= 5 seconds

   You can set it up as a proportion: 2/1= n/5, n=10

5. 1/2 of 50,000 or 1/2 x 50,000 or 50,000/2= 25,000 species

6. True

7. erosion

8. Buy paper products made from recycled paper and become a vegetarian

9. b.) A variety, or many different kinds of living things

10. live

How did you do?  I bet you did great!

Note:  This integrated lesson is designed for 3rd grade students.  The following California standards are addressed in this lesson:

Reading: Vocabulary and Concept Development (1.6): Use sentence and word context to find the meaning of unknown words.

Reading Comprehension:  Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text (2.6): Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems and solutions.

Writing applications:  Write personal and formal letters , thank-you notes, and invitations (2.3): Show awareness of the knowledge and interests of the audience and establish a purpose and context.

Life Science:  Students know when the environment changes, some plants and animals survive and reproduce; others die or move to new locations. 

Social Studies:  Students understand the role of rules and laws in our daily lives and the basic structure of the U.S. government (3.42): Discuss the importance of public virtue and the role of citizens, including how to participate in a classroom, in the community, and in civic life.

Algebra and Functions:  Students select appropriate symbols, operations, and properties to represent, describe, simplify, and solve simple number relationships: (1.1): Represent relationships of quantities in the form of mathematical expressions, equations, or inequalities.

Pen Pals

Hello students! 

The following link lists names and e-mails of KIDS SAVING THE RAINFOREST.  It would be great to pair each of you up with a pen pal in California.  Each pair will write to each other about a question I will post at the end of every lesson.  The writing exchange will take place under the Comments Section.  I would very much like to pair you up with someone who has similar interests with you. 

Under the Comments section, please type your First and Last name, e-mail address, grade and age.  Tell us some of your favorite hobbies, subjects, books, animals, foods, sports teams, etc.  And finally, tell us what it's like to live in Costa Rica near a rainforest! Wow!  Also, tell us about some of the things you have done to help save the rainforest. 

Thanks so much!  We look forward to getting to know you and learning about how WE can all make a difference in saving the rainforests.

Pura Vida,

Lisa M. Algee

Ph D. student in Environmental Education at UCSC

Orcas

Known as Killer Whales, a preferable name for them is Orcas. 

In Spanish, they are known as Ballena Asesina.
Surprisingly, they are part of the dolphin family which contains 32 species of marine mammals.
Orcas are the most widely distributed mammals after humans.

Orca features:
Weight 8,000 - 12,000 lbs
Length, up to 30 feet (the size of a school bus).

Male dorsal fins have a triangular shape and can be as tall as 6 ft.

Female and juvenile dorsal fins are sickle shaped and are about 3 ft. in height. 

Where do they live?
They tend to live in colder waters, like the Arctic and Antarctic oceans, but they can live in any sea or ocean in the world. They are non migratory, but they will follow food that migrates!

What do they eat?
It depends on where they are...fish, walrus, seals, sea lions, penguins, squid, sea turtles, sharks, other whales and even moose!  One was found with a moose in its stomach.

How much do they eat?
500 lbs per day; about 5% of their body weight.

How do they hunt?
They often hunt is groups:
- herding fish (salmon, herring, etc)
- surrounding larger animals like a pack of wolves (grey and blue whales)
- knocking seals off ice floes
- surfing up on beach shores to snatch unsuspecting seals and birds (this happens in Pantagonia,   Argentina when baby seals are just learning how to swim)

How is the orca colored to help them hunt?
Black on top and white underneath...the black coloring on their dorsal side (back) blends in with the dark, ocean water on the surface, while their white bellies reflect light when an animal of prey is under the water looking up.  Thus, the prey animals have a tough time seeing the orcas.  This camoflage benefits the orcas to sneak up on their prey species.   

How long are orca's teeth?
About 3 inches.  They have 52 conical teeth.

How fast can orcas swim?
Top speed 50 km per hour; very fast swimmers.

What is an orca family or group called?
A pod.  There can be between 6- 40 orcas in a pod, though there have been sightings of 1000's of orcas together. There pod is set up so that the males are on the outside protecting the young and the females are in the center.  The oldest female, the matriarch, leads the pack. 

How do orcas communicate?
With whistles, clicks, and screams; similar to dolphins.  They also use echolocation to navigate during the night and also to locate objects in the water, such as boats and other animals. 

Orca behavior
They breach (jump out of the water), tail slap, pectoral slap, and spy-hop (pop their heads vertically out of the water).  Scientists don't know why orcas behave in these ways.  What do you think?
Could they be communicating, mating, cleaning off parasite...

How long do orcas live?
They can live to be 80 years old. They have no predators except man.  They are known as a top predator or the top of the food chain.

How good are their senses?
They have acute hearing, vision above and under water, and also touch.  This all adds to their keen hunting abilities.

The situation with orcas today.
Orcas are not seen to be endangered, though as they are so widely spread, their whole population is not known. Pollution and competition with humans for fish could threaten them. In the past, thousands of orcas were killed per year by fishermen. The USA and several countries have signed the Marine Mammal Protection Act which means that no marine mammals can be harrassed or killed in their waters.

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